Generation X - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 592 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2018/12/15 Category Poetry Essay Type Research paper Level High school Tags: Poem Essay Did you like this example? I visited the Pueblo Chilies distribution company in Santa Fe, New Mexico. At the back was a room where there were various performances going on. However, I had gone there specifically for the spoken word presentations. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Generation X" essay for you Create order During the day, this place doubles up as a distribution center for New Mexicos chilies which are often entered into competitions and festivals. The dress code was casual, considering the clientele were simply looking to interact with those who had similar interests in the arts. Night time is usually the best time to catch these performances; away from the bustle of traffic, heat, and work. I went to see the performance with a friend who had recommended it for my project. I am not well conversant with the area so she was a big help in locating it and finding out what times it opened and the safety precautions I needed to take. I discovered that most of the women there were dressed in slacks or jeans and ankle-length shoes, probably to protect their legs from insect bites. The spoken word is a form of poetry that works with word play to communicate social issues and to create awareness or even to entertain. This oral art is not only rhythmic but it is also applicable to all forms of the verbally-expressed arts. It focuses on voice inflection and intonation to communicate with the audience. This is different from poems which often follow a specific pattern and poetic innuendos. The manipulation of sound in the spoken word gives it body and effectiveness. The performer highlighted the emptiness that young people feel and the racial discrimination that still exists despite advances in technology. She reiterated that we are responsible for saving the universe while at the same time we are misshaping it. ?The past predicts the future, while the present speaks of the past in the spoken word reiterates Gwilliams (Gwilliams, Linzen, Poeppel Marantz, 2017). This performance when placed within context shows how far the current generation has gone in a bid to get wealthy while ignoring their social responsibilities. Watching this performance helped me fully understand and appreciate the spoken word. The performer had the audience captivated as well evidenced by their response while addressing what ails the current generation. The most captivating moment was when she identified human pretense in attempting to attain happiness while having a vacuum which they attempt to fill with financial gains at the expense of others. The humanities explore the tenets of human culture which is passed down through generations. The application of this is the use of words to express the feelings of an individual who exists within the same age group and I would like to find out more about how to change the young mindset, if possible. The fluency and mastery of this art is evidence of the evolution of the humanities from mere monotones into pieces that are not only memorable but applicable to a specific audience and within every time frame. The use of familiar language enables audiences to identify with what the performer is speaking of. In the words of Roy and others, the spoken word has the ability to transcend the speaker, creating a historical link in its elf (Roy, Frank, DeCamp, P., Miller Roy, 2015). References Gwilliams, L., Linzen, T., Poeppel, D., Marantz, A. (2017). In spoken word recognition the future predicts the past.? bioRxiv, 150151. Roy, B. C., Frank, M. C., DeCamp, P., Miller, M., Roy, D. (2015). Predicting the birth of a spoken word.? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,? 112(41), 12663-12668.

Truman s Foreign Policy For The Atomic Bomb - 2235 Words

2. Truman’s need to address foreign policy itself did not even exist until he actually became president in 1945, which may have had an impact on his decisions when it became a primary issue for him during his presidency. This began with the Potsdam Conference, which has been noted as the time when Truman started to carry views against the Soviets, because of his repulsion to compromising with Stalin. The fact that Truman’s enthusiasm fell after testing for the atomic bomb finished suggested that the two events directly correlated. On top of that, after Japan’s surrender due to the atomic bomb, Truman ended the Lend-Lease act that was originally initiated by Roosevelt. Considering these two examples of Truman’s foreign policy, it is†¦show more content†¦Since WWII was needed to take the U.S. out of the Great Depression, the danger of the country returning to that state after the war finished was imminent. One event that exemplified this insecurity was the Strike Wave of 1946, which Truman solved by basically making it consequential by law to go on strike. However, economic problems were still occurring overseas in Europe. In order to assist them, Truman provided â€Å"Europe with badly needed economic recovery aid (the Marshall Plan)† (Hastedt). The Marshall Plan was an action that the U.S. took in an attempt to aid Europe’s economy, by paying $13 billion. This seemingly was also made in an effort to reduce the power of the Soviet Union, and allow Europe’s powers to compete, sequentially reducing the risk of an authoritarian influence. There was also Truman’s Fair Deal, which generally dealt with America’s domestic problems, but because of that also addressed its economic difficulties. Since it primarily aimed to make everything fair in domestic life, as the name suggested, the economy improved as a result. Overall, Truman’s economic policy revolved around keeping the economy at a man ageable level, rather than having it crash similar to the Great Depression, and have to bring it back up. 3. The six main parts, or principal organs, of the United Nations consist of the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the

Bridging Deontological and Teleological Ethical Perspectives Free Essays

string(100) " all the rest happening in the world as we speak comprise a portion of the general karma of things\." Buddhism espouses the concept of â€Å"karma† which refers to the chains of causes and events in the universe (Reichenbach, p. 137). A person who has experienced something good in life is said to have good karma whereas the opposite is true for the person who has experienced something bad. We will write a custom essay sample on Bridging Deontological and Teleological Ethical Perspectives or any similar topic only for you Order Now In a way, karma serves as the law of moral causation precisely because moral and immoral acts result to good and bad consequences, respectively. Thus, doing something good can ultimately lead to a morally sound consequence whereas doing something bad can eventually lead to an immoral effect. In any case, the â€Å"something† in â€Å"doing something† can be either right or wrong in itself. Similarly, the â€Å"something† in â€Å"doing something† can also be either right or wrong with respect to its consequences. Taking the Buddhist concept of karma and using it within the context of ethics, the result is an understanding of the connection between karma, deontological and teleological ethics. For the most part, deontological ethics is a branch of ethics that deals with the moral worth of actions. That is, the moral worth of something depends on the rightness or wrongness of the act that causes it. For instance, aborting an unborn fetus in order to save the mother is morally wrong essentially because abortion kills a living being and is, therefore, wrong in the first place. In deontological ethics, the rightness or wrongness of an act is fundamental in determining whether an action is ethical or unethical, which implies that the basis for saying whether an act is moral or immoral is the act itself. Connecting that thought with the Buddhist concept of karma, the totality of all the chains of causes and effects in the world is the summation of all actions that are inherently good or evil regardless of their consequences. As a result, the foundation of the Buddhist concept of karma when viewed from a deontological ethical perspective is the action itself no matter what the consequence may be. While deontological ethics treats actions and their consequences separately when identifying the moral worth of actions, it does not mean however that actions and their consequences are inherently separate. Rather, they remain tied insofar as they remain causes and effects to one another. On the other hand, teleological ethics is primarily concerned with the consequences of actions in determining their moral worth, which is why most teleological ethical theories are also called consequentialist ethical theories. The moral worth of an action can be gauged in terms of the consequences it leads to. For instance, aborting a child may save the mother, thereby making the act of abortion in the specific circumstance morally permissible and ethical at the same time. So long as the consequences are favorable, an action remains moral as far as teleological ethical theory is concerned. With that in mind, the Buddhist concept of karma sits comfortably with teleological ethics. That is because karma involves both causes and effects; no action can be determined as either right or wrong if there is no consideration for the consequences it leads to. Taken as a whole, there is strong reason to believe that karma shares several revealing characteristics with the philosophical formulations of both deontological and teleological ethical theories. In most case, teleological and deontological ethical theories are often placed on extreme poles primarily because each treats the moral worth of action in distinct ways. However, the Buddhist concept of karma can provide a common ground for both ethical theories at least in terms of one thing—the causation of events in the universe. Buddhist Karma and Deontology Immanuel Kant is one of the foremost philosophers who favored deontology throughout his career. Kant once argued that human beings should not be treated as means to an end but as the ends themselves (Sokoloff, p. 770). In other words, a person should not use another person as a way for him to achieve his desires. Rather, that person ought to treat the other person with respect and dignity precisely because the welfare of other persons should be at the helm of every human pursuit. That idea closely resembles the â€Å"golden rule† which proposes that a person should act towards other people in the way that he expects himself to be treated by others. Deontological ethics, therefore, prescribes that actions are morally right because of their morally right nature. Given the fact that karma in general is the totality of all causes and effects in the universe, it can also be said as the totality of all the interactions among human beings with other fellow human beings. Although karma is not entirely limited to such an interpretation, it nevertheless accepts the fact that interpersonal interaction—apart from humanity’s interaction with the surrounding environment—can be the respective causes of certain effects and effects of certain causes. A society can be composed of individuals treating one another as means to an end, as ends themselves or a combination thereof. Take all societies in the world and the picture becomes broader yet clearer. In a way, interpersonal interaction has a substantial role in the general karma of all things. There are countless numbers of individuals from across the world taking part in the activities that occur on a daily basis. Somewhere in North Korea, there may be a person who is morally condemned for constantly threatening neighboring countries through the testing of potentially dangerous nuclear armaments. Somewhere in the United States, a policeman avoids offers of bribe due to the belief that the act of bribing in itself is morally wrong even though the money given can be enough to sustain the officer’s family’s financial needs for another month. Somewhere in Saudi Arabia, a man pays respect to his elders by making them happy through gifts because he believes that his elders are human beings who deserve all the happiness in the world just like anybody else. These interactions and all the rest happening in the world as we speak comprise a portion of the general karma of things. You read "Bridging Deontological and Teleological Ethical Perspectives" in category "Papers" Performing actions that are inherently ethical or unethical can influence the way in which karma takes places. The favor may be returned or not. Either way, both ethical and unethical actions play a role in the chains of causes and effects in the universe. Buddhist Karma and Teleology The key principle in teleological ethical theory is the idea that an action is morally right or wrong depending on its consequences. One version of that idea is utilitarianism which grants that an action is good if it leads to the greatest benefit of the greatest number (Freeman, p. 313). Conversely, a person’s actions or decisions are morally right if it actually promotes the welfare of the wide majority of people involved or concerned in the situation. On the other hand, an action is wrong if it does the exact opposite, which is either to promote the welfare of the few or to cause harm to the majority. Teleological ethics, therefore, implies that the consequences of an action largely determine its moral worth. In the case of utilitarianism, determining the moral worth of an action is possible if the consequences can be quantified. If teleological ethics depends on the consequences of actions, it will also naturally involve the relationship between the cause and effect of any given circumstance. In effect, good karma can be characterized as karma resulting from the good consequences of an individual’s actions or decisions. On the other hand, bad karma can be characterized as karma resulting from the bad consequences of a person’s acts. In both cases, there is the presumption that there are causes in the same way as there are effects. That presumption underscores the principle that the relationship between causes and effects significantly determines not only the rightness or wrongness of actions but also their good and bad valuations in terms of Buddhist karma. When taken from the broadest perspective of teleological ethics, karma can be seen occurring in almost every part of the globe. A president of a certain first-world country deciding to aid people living in impoverished countries through foreign aid can certainly give good consequences to an immense number of people. In effect, the benefits these people will be receiving through the aid can be said as part of their good karma. On the other hand, the praises from the international community and the appreciation of the people at the receiving end of the foreign aid can also be said as part of the good karma for the president. Another example is when one nation decides to declare war on another distant nation. The results can be devastating, the most significant of which is the possible loss of countless lives. For both sides participating in the war, the bad karma can be easily seen not only for the people who lived to witness and experience firsthand the atrocities of the war but also for the generations that will follow. Karma interpreted in the context of teleological ethics can also refer to ordinary events on a smaller scale. A person taking the law into his own hands by murdering another person for vengeance will be jailed. Consequently, the jailing of the murder convict can be said as a form of bad karma. A person gaining a new friend by sharing the table to another stranger in the public library can be said as good karma. At any rate, the consequences of our actions determine our actions’ moral worth, and it is from the relationship between the consequences and the actions where Buddhist karma can be taken from. Deontology’s Karma versus Teleology’s Karma What are the differences between deontology’s karma and teleology’s karma? For the most part, it can be said that both deontological and teleological ethics attempt to categorize moral worth of actions, the former in terms of the nature of the actions and the latter in terms of their consequences. Although the difference largely rests on what to use as the basis for the moral worth of an action, the undeniable similarity is that both ethical theories touch the Buddhist concept of karma. At the least, the concept of karma provides the common ground for the ethical theories that are commonly labeled as anti-thesis to one another. Since karma presupposes causes and effects, it must also deal with the relationships that exist between them. On one hand, the relationship can be viewed in terms of the â€Å"cause† determining its own moral worth independently from the â€Å"effect†. On the other hand, the relationship can also be viewed in terms of the â€Å"effect† determining the moral worth of the â€Å"cause†. In both instances, the causes naturally lead to their effects even though the basis for identifying their moral worth differs. As Kaufman writes, karma is â€Å"not only about the causes of an effect insomuch as it is not only about the effects of a cause in any given circumstance. Rather, it is about the marriage of the two† (Kaufman, p. 16). This inseparability of the cause from the effect—or vice versa—in terms of Buddhist karma is the reason why it can be said that deontological and teleological ethics are looking at the same coin only focusing on different sides, so to speak. They look at the same relationships although each one concentrates on a distinct angle—deontology on the cause and teleology on the effect. Karma and General Ethics Damien Keown writes that karma â€Å"inevitably concerns a person’s character† (Keown, p. 331). That is because a person’s character can influence his actions and decisions as well as the effects of such actions and decisions. In effect, the chains of universal causes and effects involve the overall moral characters of all people. Karma becomes intertwined, as it does in fact, with the ethical inclinations of individuals. In general, ethics is concerned with the rightness or wrongness of things. It offers a wide array of ethical precepts which people are expected to follow in order to live morally upright lives. Karma, on the other hand, implies a person’s capacity to make his own decisions and, therefore, his capacity to self-determination as opposed to abiding by a predetermined fate. Taken together, ethics provides options for individuals to fully realize the things that they want to achieve. Ethics provides frameworks for people to use in order to make decisions and enact them based on what is morally permissible. Keeping in line with what is morally permissible is said to lead to good karma while deviating from what is moral can lead to bad karma. Deontological and teleological ethics are just two of the ethical doctrines that individuals can follow in order to attain a favorable karma. Although deontological and teleological ethics are both unique to the point that they contradict one another in terms of what to use as basis for determining the moral worth of actions, they also come into terms within the context of the Buddhist karma. They share the common belief in the causation of things; everything happens for a reason. Either the cause in itself is the reason for the act’s moral worth or the effect determines the moral worth of the action. Works Cited Freeman, Samuel. â€Å"Utilitarianism, Deontology, and the Priority of Right. † Philosophy and Public Affairs 23. 4 (1994): 313-49. Kaufman, Whitley R. P. â€Å"Karma, Rebirth, and the Problem of Evil. † Philosophy East and West 55. 1 (2005): 15-32. Keown, Damien. â€Å"Karma, Character, and Consequentialism. † The Journal of Religious Ethics 24. 2 (1996): 329-50. Reichenbach, Bruce R. â€Å"Karma, Causation, and Divine Intervention. † Philosophy East and West 39. 2 (1989): 135-49. Sokoloff, William W. â€Å"Kant and the Paradox of Respect. † American Journal of Political Science 45. 4 (2001): 768-79. How to cite Bridging Deontological and Teleological Ethical Perspectives, Papers

Functions of The Marketing Automation Software †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Marketing Automation Software Functions. Answer: Introduction: The essay is a discussion on customer relationship management (CRM) with special focus on Marketing Automation, considered an emerging trend in CRM. The essay commences with a brief overview of marketing automation and goes on to mention its benefits. There is also discussion about the attributes that contributes to the effectiveness of digital marketing operations. The essay gives an insight into the functions of the marketing automation software. There essay also explains how Netflix Australia has undertaken marketing automation. Netflix is an American entertainment company that helps in providing streaming media and online video on demand via mail. Discussion: Marketing Automation refers to the technologies and software platforms designed for supporting marketers and organizations for effectively carrying out marketing on various online channels like email, social media and various websites (Heimbach, Kostyra and Hinz 2015). This also helps in the automation of repetitive task. Marketing Automation is an emerging trend in customer relation management and is used by campaign and marketing managers, market managers and analyst, promotions managers, direct marketing managers and database managers. Marketing Automation platform primarily used for replacing the repetitive manual processes with advanced automated solutions. Marketers nowadays use this platform for planning, coordination, measuring and managing both the offline and online marketing campaigns (Jarvinen and Taiminen 2016). The application of marketing automation ensures implementation of newer processes and efficiency of the existing process. Thus, marketing is a tool that allows designing, execution and automation of a time bound workflow in marketing. Platforms for Marketing Automation allow marketers in simplifying and automating the client communication through the management of complicated Omni channel strategies of marketing by using a single tool (Khodakarami and Chan 2014). The areas in which marketing automation serves as a great help includes segmentation, lead generation, lead nurturing and scoring, relationship marketing, retention and measurement of return on investment. The benefits of Marketing Automation include increase in the marketing efficiency through greater control over the cost and implementation of cost efficient and streamlined processes (Sweezey 2014). This helps any incumbent in efficiently carrying out the process. Marketing automation also ensures greater productivity in marketing through elimination of manual processes where marketers can have increased focus on tasks that requires more stringent monitoring. The platform also helps in increasing responsiveness. The application of the process allows the marketers to respond to opportunities even when it is not a part of their plan. The function of marketing automation enables companies to be a part of real time marketing and instantly respond to identified opportunity. Marketing automation helps in improving the marketing insights through its embedded functionality of analytics and reporting. Improvement in marketing insight primarily takes place in terms of customers, campaigns, eve nts and markets that leads to both enhancements in effectiveness and efficiency (Chaffey, Smith and Smith 2013). The process also ensures enhanced customer experience and customer retention. Marketing automation can help in customer retention and satisfaction through intelligent marketing. This is done by providing the relevant insight into both the prospective and existing customers. The process will help increased number of companies in predicting customer decisions and needs thereby enabling them in acting accordingly with wastage of time. Marketing Automation also leads to improvement in accountability (Powell 2012). The data analytics aspect of marketing automation enables the firms in better judging commercial return from the marketing activities, ensure improved transparency and lead to timely information of management. Marketing automation helps in the availability of complete customer data. The process allows sourcing, capturing and storing customer data in a particular loc ation and allowing real tine analysis and access. The availability of tools allows modeling and visualization of customer data. The five attributes of effective digital marketing operations includes truly understanding the customers, delivering an enhanced and superior experience, selection of the appropriate technology for marketing, implementation of governance and process and making use of the right metrics in driving profit(Miller 2012). Truly understanding the customer refers to the knowing the customers well. This involves tracking, analysis and interpretation of the customer attitudes and behavior that helps in not only shaping and targeting the relevant experiences but determine delivery (Lemon and Verhoef 2016). Feeding such insights into the marketing operation requires quick delivery and analysis in a form that becomes appreciable to the decision makers. Scaling such capabilities requires organizations in automating the processes. Superior delivery experience is necessary for continuation of the customer journey. This requires mapping of every step that define the sole customer experience. This requires implementation of technologies and automating the processes for ensuring a smoother journey. With the emerging trends of customer relationship management, selection of the right marketing technology is of utmost importance. The choice of marketing automation would ensure delivery of Omni channel customer experi ence and thereby bridge the gap between the marketing operations and customer experience. Adoption of technology through the process of marketing automation helps in implementation of governance and processes. Digitalizing marketing operations through the adoption of marketing automation helps in tracking, monitoring and managing the effectiveness of the marketing investments. Thus, the process helps in using the best metrics for driving success. Marketing automation software undertakes the function of marketing campaigns, online and digital marketing along with strategic and other marketing (Lee, Tang and Sugumaran 2014). The marketing campaign ensures campaign management and campaign management through the process of direct mail. It also ensures campaign management via email along with undertaking of trigger marketing, event based marketing and telemarketing. Marketing campaign also ensures optimization of marketing and lead generation. As the name suggests, online and digital marketing, deals with online marketing, keyword marketing, content management, social media marketing, analysis of data and search engine optimization. The Strategic and other marketing function of the marketing automation software ensures integrated marketing management, marketing performance management, marketing the resource management, management of loyalty, partner marketing, customer and market segmentation and selection, asset and document mana gement, lifecycle management of projects, development of workflow and marketing analytics. Netflix has been the biggest online sensations of the world offering a completely new kind of entertainment (Netflix.com, 2018). The company has undertaken marketing automation that has benefited not only the consumers but also the business. Therefore, the things one can learn from Netflix include their capability of learning to use the available data. Marketing automation allows a company to use data to their advantage. Netflix has also made use of such data to not only make recommendations but also use it for producing content as per the preference of the people. The adoption of marketing automation also helps Netflix in being where their customers are and remain completely responsive to the needs if the customers. This is done by embracing mobile, social and digital technology. Thus, Netflix have a stronger presence in social media that is also the platform for the largest target market of the company. Marketing automation has also taught Netflix to overcome stagnancy (Stahlberg a nd Maila 2013). The company has been in business for a longer period of time and the reason for it being the presence of the open-ended system. The important aspect of Netflix lies in the fact that the company is not only proactive but also adopts constant change to include the preferences of the people. Conclusion: The essay ends with a discussion on Netflix viewed in terms of the Marketing Automation. The success of Netflix has led many company executives to reexamine its business model and henceforth shift towards a model that focused on live streaming of movies and television. The essay also discusses about the functions of the marketing automations software along with a focus on the attributes that result in digital marketing operations. Marketing automation make life easier, help in scaling the personal touch into the company and help the business to grow faster. Marketing is an essential portion of the business and marketing automation is such a tool that helps effective business growth by helping them to grow in terms of strength. References: Chaffey, D., Smith, P.R. and Smith, P.R., 2013.eMarketing eXcellence: Planning and optimizing your digital marketing. Routledge. Heimbach, I., Kostyra, D.S. and Hinz, O., 2015. Marketing automation.Business Information Systems Engineering,57(2), pp.129-133. Jrvinen, J. and Taiminen, H., 2016. Harnessing marketing automation for B2B content marketing.Industrial Marketing Management,54, pp.164-175. Khodakarami, F. and Chan, Y.E., 2014. Exploring the role of customer relationship management (CRM) systems in customer knowledge creation.Information Management,51(1), pp.27-42. Lee, Y.C., Tang, N.H. and Sugumaran, V., 2014. Open source CRM software selection using the analytic hierarchy process.Information systems management,31(1), pp.2-20. Lemon, K.N. and Verhoef, P.C., 2016. Understanding customer experience throughout the customer journey.Journal of Marketing,80(6), pp.69-96. Miller, M., 2012.B2B digital marketing: Using the web to market directly to businesses. Que Publishing. Netflix.com. (2018).Netflix United Kingdom Watch TV Programmes Online, Watch Films Online. [online] Available at: https://www.netflix.com/in/ [Accessed 4 Feb. 2018]. Powell, G.R., 2012.Marketing calculator: Measuring and managing return on marketing investment. John Wiley Sons. Sthlberg, M. and Maila, V., 2013.Multichannel Marketing Ecosystems: Creating Connected Customer Experiences. Kogan Page Publishers. Stone, M.D. and Woodcock, N.D., 2014. Interactive, direct and digital marketing: A future that depends on better use of business intelligence.Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing,8(1), pp.4-17. Sweezey, M., 2014.Marketing automation for dummies. John Wiley Sons.

Fraternities and Rape on Campus Essay Example

Fraternities and Rape on Campus Essay Thesis statement: Despite widespread knowledge that fraternity members are frequently involved in the sexual assaults of women, fraternities are rarely studied as social contexts-groups and organizations-that encourage the sexual coercionof women. An analysis of the normsand dynamicsof the social construction of fraternity brotherhoodreveals the highly masculinistfeatures of fraternitystructureand process, includingconcern with a narrow,stereotypicalconceptionof masculinity and heterosexuality;a preoccupation with loyalty, protection of the group, and secrecy; the use of alcohol as a weapon against women’ssexual reluctance;the pervasiveness of violence and physicalforce; and an obsession withcompetition,superiority,and dominance. Interfraternityrivalry and competition-particularly over members, intramuralsports, and women-encourage fraternitymen’scommodification women. Weconclude thatfraternities of will continue to violate womensocially and sexually unless they change in fundamentalways. Rapes are perpetrated on dates, at parties, in chance encounters, and in specially planned circumstances. That group structure and processes, rather than individual values or characteristics, are the impetus for many rape episodes was documented by Blanchard (1959) 30 years ago (also see Geis 1971), yet sociologists have failed to pursue this theme (for an exception, see Chancer 1987). We will write a custom essay sample on Fraternities and Rape on Campus specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Fraternities and Rape on Campus specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Fraternities and Rape on Campus specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer A recent review of research (Muehlenhard and Linton 1987) on sexual violence, or rape, devotes only a few pages to the situational AUTHORS’ NOTE: WegratefullythankMeena Harris and Diane Mennellafor assisting with data collection. The senior author thanks the graduate students in her fall 1988 graduate research methods seminarfor help with developing the initial conceptual framework. Judith Lorberand two anonymousGender Societyrefereesmadenumerous suggestionsforimproving our article and we thankthemalso. REPRINT REQUESTS: Patricia Yancey Martin, Department of Sociology, Florida State University,Tallahassee,FL 32306-2011. GENDER SOCIETY,Vol. 3 No. 4, December 1989 457-473 ? 1989 Sociologists for Womenin Society 457 458 (ENDER SOCIETY / December 1989 contextsof rapeevents, andthese areconceptualizedas potentialriskfactors social contexts. for individualsratherthan qualitiesof rape-prone Many rapes, far more than come to the public’s attention, occur in houses on college and universitycampuses,yet little researchhas fraternity analyzed fraternitiesat American colleges and universities as rape-prone contexts (cf. Ehrhart Sandler1985). Most of the researchon fraternities and reports on samples of individual fraternitymen. One group of studies compares the values, attitudes,perceptions,family socioeconomic status, psychological traits (aggressiveness, dependence),and so on, of fraternity and nonfraterity men (Bohrnstedt1969;Fox, Hodge,andWard1987; Kanin 1967; Lemire 1979; Miller 1973). A second group attemptsto identify the effects of fraternitymembershipover time on the values, attitudes,beliefs, or moral precepts of members (Hughes and Winston 1987; Marlowe and Auvenshine 1982; Miller 1973; Wilder, Hoyt, Doren, Hauck, and Zettle 1978; Wilder,Hoyt, Surbeck,Wilder,and Carney1986). Withminorexceptions, little research addresses the group and organizationalcontext of fraternitiesor the social constructionof fraternitylife (for exceptions, see Letchworth1969; Longino and Kart1973; Smith 1964). Gary Tash, writing as an alumnus and trial attorneyin his fraternity’s magazine,claims thatover 90 percentof all gang rapeson college campuses men (1988, p. 2). Tashprovidesno evidence to substantiate involve fraternity this claim, butstudentsof violence againstwomen havebeen concernedwith fraternitymen’s frequentlyreportedinvolvement in rape episodes (Adams and and Abarbanel1988). Ehrhart Sandler(1985) identify over 50 cases of on campusperpetrated fraternity men, andtheiranalysispoints by gang rapes to many of the conditions that we discuss here. Their analysis is uniquein focusing on conditions in fraternitiesthat make gang rapes of women by fraternitymen both feasible and probable. They identify excessive alcohol of use, isolationfrom externalmonitoring,treatment women as prey,use of approvalof violence, andexcessive concernwith competition pornography, conditionsto gang rape(also see Merton1985; Roark1987). s precipitating The study reportedhere confirmedand complementedthese findings by focusing on both conditions and processes. We examineddynamicsassociated with the social constructionof fraternity life, with a focus on processes men’s relations that foster the use of coercion, includingrape, in fraternity with women. Our examinationof men’s social fraternitieson college and university campuses as groups and organizationsled us to conclude that fraternitiesare a physical and sociocultural context that encourages the are sexual coercion of women. We make no claims thatall fraternities â€Å"bad† or that all fraternitymen are rapists. Our observationsindicated,however, Martin, Hummer / FRATERNITIES AND RAPE 459 that rape is especially probable in fraternitiesbecause of the kinds of organizationsthey are, the kinds of membersthey have, the practicestheir members engage in, and a virtual absence of university or community oversight. Analyses that lay blame for rapes by fraternitymen on â€Å"peer 1989; Walsh1989). We are, pressure† we feel, overly simplistic(cf. Burkhart suggest, rather,that fraternitiescreate a socioculturalcontext in which the use of coercion in sexual relationswith women is normativeand in which the mechanismsto keep this patternof behaviorin check are minimalat best and absent at worst. We conclude that unless fraternitieschange in fundamentalways, little improvementcan be expected. METHODOLOGY Our goal was to analyze the group and organizationalpractices and an conditionsthatcreatein fraternities abusivesocial contextfor women. We a conceptualframeworkfrom an initial case study of an alleged developed gang rape at FloridaState University that involved four fraternitymen and an 18-year-old coed. The group rape took place on the third floor of a of house and ended with the â€Å"dumping† the woman in the hallway fraternity of a neighboring fraternityhouse. According to newspaperaccounts, the victim’s blood-alcohol concentration,when she was discovered, was . 349 percent,more than threetimes the legal limit for automobiledrivingand an almost lethal amount. One law enforcement officer reportedthat sexual intercourseoccurredduringthe time the victim was unconscious:†She was in a life-threateningsituation†(Tallahassee Democrat, 1988b). When the victim was found,she was comatoseandhad sufferedmultiplescratchesand abrasions. Crude words and a fraternitysymbol had been written on her thighs (Tampa Tribune, 1988). When law enforcement officials tried to investigate the case, fraternitymembers refused to cooperate. This led, fromcampusby the university eventually,to a five-yearban of the fraternity and by the fraternity’s nationalorganization. In tryingto understand how such an event could have occurred,and how a group of over 150 members (exact figures are unknown because the fraternityrefused to provide a membershiproster) could hold rank, deny knowledge of the event, and allegedly lie to a grand jury, we analyzed newspaperarticlesaboutthe case andconductedopen-endedinterviewswith a varietyof respondentsaboutthe case and aboutfraternities, rapes,alcohol use, genderrelations,andsexual activitieson campus. Ourdataincludedover 100 newspaperarticleson the initial gang rapecase; open-endedinterviews 460 GENDER SOCIETY / December 1989 ith Greek (social fraternityand sorority) and non-Greek(independent) students(N = 20); universityadministrators = 8, five men, threewomen); (N and alumniadvisersto Greekorganizations = 6). Open-endedinterviews (N were held also with judges, public and private defense attorneys,victim advocates,and state prosecutorsregardingthe processingof sexual assault cases. Datawere analyzedusing the grounde dtheorymethod(Glaser 1978; MartinandTurner1986). In the following analysis,conceptsgeneratedfrom the dataanalysisareintegrated with the literature men’s social fraternities, on sexual coercion, and relatedissues. FRATERNITIES THESOCIAL AND CONSTRUCTION OF NMEN MASCULINITY AND Ourresearchindicatedthatfraternities vitally concerned- more than are with anythingelse-with masculinity(cf. Kanin 1967). They work hardto create a macho image and context and try to avoid any suggestion of Valuedmembersdisplay,or â€Å"wimpishness,† effeminacy,andhomosexuality. arewilling to go along with, a narrow conceptionof masculinitythatstresses competition, athleticism, dominance, winning, conflict, wealth, material possessions, willingness to drink alcohol, and sexual prowess vis-a-vis women. f ValuedQualities Members When fraternitymemberstalkedaboutthe kind of pledges they prefer,a and litany of stereotypicaland narrowlymasculineattributes behaviorswas recited and feminine or woman-associatedqualities and behaviors were expressly denounced (cf. Merton 1985). Fraternitiesseek men who are â€Å"athletic,† â€Å"big guys,† good in intramuralcompetition, â€Å"who can talk college sports. â⠂¬  Males â€Å"who are willing to drink alcohol,† â€Å"who drink socially,† or â€Å"who can hold theirliquor†are sought. Alcohol and activities associatedwith the recreational of alcohol arecornerstonesof fraternity use social life. Nondrinkersare viewed with skepticismand rarelyselected for membership. ‘ Fraternities to avoid â€Å"geeks,†nerds,andmen saidto give the fraternity try a â€Å"wimpy†or â€Å"gay†reputation. Art, music, and humanitiesmajors,majors in traditional women’s fields (nursing,home economics, social work,educaor tion),menwith long hair,andthosewhose appearance dressviolate current normsarerejected. Clean-cut,handsomemenwho dresswell (areclean,neat, Martin, Hummer / FRATERNITIES AND RAPE 61 One sororitywomancommentedthat conforming,fashionable)arepreferred. â€Å"the top rankingfraternitieshave the best looking guys. † recruited â€Å"some big guys, One fraternity man, a senior,said his fraternity athletic†over a two-yearperiod to help overcome its image of wimpivery ness. His fraternity had won the interfraternity competition for hig hest several years running but was looked down on as grade-point average â€Å"wimpy, dancy, even gay. † With their bigger, more athletic recruits,†our reputationimproved;we’re a much more recognizedfraternitynow. Thus a fraternity’sreputation and status depends on members’ possession of stereotypically masculine qualities. Good grades, campus leadership,and communityservice are â€Å"nice†but masculinitydominance-for example, in athletic events, physical size of members,athleticismof members- counts most. Certainsocial skills are valued. Men are soughtwho â€Å"havegood personalities,†are friendly,and â€Å"havethe ability to relateto girls†(cf. Longinoand Kart 1973). One fraternityman, a junior,said: â€Å"Wewatch a guy [a potential pledge] talk to women †¦ we want guys who can relateto girls. Assessing a pledge’s ability to talk to women is, in part,a preoccupationwith homosexuality and a conscious avoidance of m en who seem to have effeminate mannersor qualities. If a memberis suspectedof being gay, he is ostracized A with a reputation and informallydrummedout of the fraternity. fraternity as wimpy or tolerantof gays is ridiculedand shunnedby other fraternities. Militantheterosexualityis frequentlyused by men as a strategyto keep each other in line (Kimmel 1987). Financialaffluence or wealth, a male-associatedvalue in Americanculture, is highly valued by fraternities. In accountingfor why the fraternity involved in the gang rape that precipitatedour researchproject had been recognized recently as â€Å"the best fraternitychapterin the United States,† a had universityofficial said: â€Å"They were good-looking, a big fraternity, lots Afterthe rape,newspaof BMWs [expensive, German-made automobiles]. † per stories described the fraternitymembers’ affluence, noting the high numberof memberswho owned expensive cars(St. PetersburgTimes,1988). The Statusand Normsof Pledgeship A pledge (sometimes called an associate member)is a new recruitwho occupies a trialmembershipstatusfor a specific periodof time. The pledge period (typically rangingfrom 10 to 15 weeks) gives fraternitybrothersan to opportunity assess and socialize new recruits. Pledges evaluatethe fraternity also and decide if they want to become brothers. The socialization 462 GENDER SOCIETY / December 1989 experience is structured partly through assignment of a Big Brother to each pledge. Big Brothers are expected to teach pledges how to become a brother and to support them as they progress through the trial membership period. Some pledges are repelled by the pledging experience, which can entail physical abuse; harsh discipline; and demands to be subordinate, follow orders, and engage in demeaning routines and activities, similar to those used by the military to â€Å"make men out of boys† during boot camp. Characteristics of the pledge experience are rationalized by fraternity members as necessary to help pledges unite into a group, rely on each other, and join together against outsiders. The process is highly masculinist in execution as well as conception. A willingness to submit to authority, follow orders, and do as one is told is viewed as a sign of loyalty, togetherness, and unity. Fraternity pledges who find the pledge process offensive often drop out. Some do this by openly quitting, which can subject them to ridicule by brothers and other pledges, or they may deliberately fail to make the grades necessary for initiation or transfer schools and decline to reaffiliate with the fraternity on the new campus. One fraternity pledge who quit the fraternity he had pledged described an experience during pledgeship as follows: This one guy was always picking on me. No matterwhat I did, I was wrong. One nightafterdinner,he and two otherguys called me andtwo otherpledges into the chapterroom. He said,†Here,X, hold this 25 poundbag of ice at arms’ length ’til I tell you to stop. † I did it even though my arms and hands were killing me. When I asked if I could stop, he grabbedme aroundthe throatand lifted me off the floor. I thoughthe would choke me to death. He cussed me andcalled me all kindsof names. He took one of my fingersandtwistedit until it nearlybroke†¦. I stayed in the fraternity a few more days, but then I for decided to quit. I hatedit. Those guys are sick. They like seeing you suffer. Fraternities’ emphasis on toughness, withstanding pain and humiliation, obedience to superiors, and using physical force to obtain compliance contributes to an interpersonal style that de-emphasizes caring and sensitivity but fosters intragroup trust and loyalty. If the least macho or most critical pledges drop out, those who remain may be more receptive to, and influenced by, masculinist values and practices that encourage the use of force in sexual relations with women and the covering up of such behavior (cf. Kanin 1967). Norms and Dynamics of Brotherhood Brother is the status occupied by fraternity men to indicate their relations to each other and their membership in a particular fraternity organization or group. Brother is a male-specific status; only males can become brothers, although women can become â€Å"Little Sisters,† a form of pseudomembership. Martin, Hummer / FRATERNITIES AND RAPE 463 is â€Å"Becominga brother† a riteof passagethatfollows the consistentandoften masculine qualitiesand behavlengthy display by pledges of appropriately iors. Brothershave a quasi-familialrelationshipwith each other,are normatively said to share bonds of closeness and support,and are sharplyset off from nonmembers. Brotherhoodis a loosely defined termused to represent the bonds that develop among fraternitymembersand the obligations and expectationsincumbentupon them (cf. Marloweand Auvenshine [1982] on fraternities’ in failureto encourage†moraldevelopment† freshmanpledges). Some of our respondentstalked about brotherhood almost reverential in One terms,viewing it as the most valuablebenefit of fraternity membership. enior, a business-school majorwho had been affiliated with a fairly highstatus fraterity throughout four years on campus,said: Brotherhood friendship life,whichI consider bestaspect, for its spurs although I didn’t it thatwaywhenIjoined. Brotherhood see It bondsandunites. instills valuesof caringaboutone another, caringaboutcommunity, caringabout ourselves. valuesandbonds brotherhood] The over [of con tinually develop the fouryears[incollege]whilenormal comeandgo. friendships Despite this idealization,most aspects of fraternity practiceand conception are more mundane. Brotherhood often plays itself out as an overriding concern with masculinityand, by extension, femininity. As a consequence, fraternities comprisecollectivities of highly masculinizedmen with attitudinal qualities and behavioralnorms thatpredisposethem to sexual coercion of women (cf. Kanin1967; Merton1985; Rapaport Burkhart and 1984). The norms of masculinity are complemented by conceptions of women and femininity that are equally distortedand stereotypedand that may enhance the probability of women’s exploitation (cf. Ehrhartand Sandler 1985; Sanday 1981, 1986). Practices Brotherhood of Practices associated with fraternitybrotherhoodthat contributeto the sexual coercion of women include a preoccupationwith loyalty, group protectionand secrecy, use of alcohol as a weapon, involvementin violence and physical force, and an emphasison competitionand superiority. Loyalty, group protection, and secrecy. Loyalty is a fraternity preoccuand pation. Membersare remindedconstantlyto be loyal to the fraternity to their brothers. Among other ways, loyalty is played out in the practicesof mustbe shieldedfromcriticism. groupprotectionand secrecy. The fraternity Members are admonishedto avoid getting the fraternityin trouble and to 464 GENDER SOCIETY / December 1989 bring all problems†to the chapter†(local branchof a nationalsocial fraterthanto outsiders. Fraternities to protectthemselvesfromclose try nity) rather Council(a quasi-governing body scrutinyandcriticismby the Interfraternity composed of representativesfrom all social fraternitieson campus), their nationaloffice, universityofficials, law enforcement,the media, fraternity’s often takesprecedenceover what and the public. Protectionof the fraternity is procedurally, ethically,or legally correct. Numerousexampleswere related brothers’lying to outsidersto â€Å"protectthe fraternity. † to us of fraternity Groupprotectionwas observed in the alleged gang rapecase with which we began our study. Except for one brother,a rapist who turned state’s evidence, the entire remainingfraternitymembershipwas accused by uniMemversity and criminaljustice officials of lying to protectthe fraternity. bers consistently failed to cooperateeven though the alleged crimes were felonies, involved only four men (two of whom were not even membersof the local chapter),and the victim of the crime nearly died. According to a with officers repeatedlybrokeappointments grandjury’s findings, fraternity law enforcementofficials, refusedto providepolice with a list of members, and refused to cooperatewith police and prosecutorsinvestigatingthe case (Florida Flambeau, 1988). Secrecy is a priority value and practice in fraternities,partly because and see full-fledgedmembershipis premisedon it (for confirmation, Ehrhart Sandler 1985; Longino and Kart 1973; Roark 1987). Secrecy is also a mechanism,demarcating in-groupfromout-group,us boundary-maintaining from them. Secret rituals, handshakes,and mottoes are revealed to pledge Since only brothersare brothersas they are initiatedinto full brotherhood. secrets,such knowledgeaffirmsmembership supposedto knowa fraternity’s fromothers. Extending and in the fraternity separatesa brother secrecytactics from protectionof private knowledge to protectionof the fraternityfrom criticismis a predictable development. Ourinterviewsindicatedthatindividual membersknew the difference between right and wrong, but fraternity normsthatemphasize loyalty,groupprotection,and secrecy often overrode of standards ethical correctness. men is normative. Alcohol as weapon. Alcohol use by fraternity They use it on weekdays to relax after class and on weekends to â€Å"get drunk,†Ã¢â‚¬ get crazy,† and â€Å"get laid. † The use of alcohol to obtain sex from women is pervasive- in otherwords, it is used as a weapon againstsexual reluctance. According to several fraternitymen whom we interviewed, alcohol is the major tool used to gain sexual mastery over women (cf. Adams and and Abarbanel1988; Ehrhart Sandler1985). One fraternity man, a 21-year- Martin, Hummer/ FRATERNITIES AND RAPE 465 old senior,describedalcohol use to gain sex as follows: â€Å"Therearegirls that you know will fuck, then some you have to put some effort into it†¦. You have to buy them drinksor find out if she’s drunkenough†¦. † mansaid thatat parties A similarstrategyis used collectively. A fraternity with LittleSisters:†Weprovidethemwith ‘hunchpunch’andthingsget wild. We get themdrunkandmost of the guys end upwith one. â€Å"† ‘Hunchpunch,† he said, â€Å"is a girls’ drink made up of overproof alcohol and powdered Kool-Aid, no water or anything,just ice. It’s very strong. Two cups will do a numberon a female. † He had plans in the next academictermto surreptitiously give hunchpunchto women in a â€Å"primand proper† sororitybecause â€Å"havingsex with prim and propersororitygirls is definitely a goal. These women are a challenge because they â€Å"won’t openly consume alcohol and commitwon’t get openly drunkas hell. † Their sororities have â€Å"standards tees† that forbidheavy drinkingand easy sex. In the gang rapecase, oursource ssaidthatmanyfraternity on campus men believed the victim had a drinkingproblem and was thus an â€Å"easy make. † According to newspaper accounts, she had been drinking alcohol on the evening she was raped;the lead assailantis alleged to havegiven hera bottle of wine aftershe arrivedat his fraternity house. Portionsof the rapeoccurred in a shower, and the victim was reportedlyso drunkthather assailantshad difficulty holding her in a standingposition (TallahasseeDemocrat, 1988a). While raping her, her assailantsrepeatedlytold her they were membersof anotherfraternityunderthe apparentbelief that she was too drunkto know the difference. Of course, if she was too drunkto know who they were, she was too drunkto consent to sex (cf. Allgeier 1986; Tash 1988). One respondent told us that gang rapes are wrong and can get one expelled, but he seemed to see nothingwrong in sexual coercionone-on-one. He seemed unawarethat the use of alcohol to obtain sex from a woman is grounds for a claim that a rape occurred(cf. Tash 1988). Few women on campus (who also may not know these grounds)reportdate rapes,however; so the odds of detectionand punishmentare slim for fraternity men who use alcohol for â€Å"seduction†purposes (cf. Byington and Keeter 1988; Merton 1985). Violence and physical force. Fraternity men have a historyof violence (Ehrhartand Sandler 1985; Roark 1987). Their recordof hazing, fighting, property destruction,and rape has caused them problems with insurance companies (Bradford1986; Pressley 1987). Two universityofficials told us that fraternities†arethe thirdriskiest propertyto insurebehind toxic waste dumps and amusementparks. â€Å"Fraternitiesare increasinglydefendantsin 466 GENDER SOCIETY / December 1989 legal actionsbroughtby pledges subjectedto hazing(Meyer 1986; Pressley 1987) and by women who were rapedby one or more members. In a recent alleged gang rape incident at anotherFloridauniversity,prosecutorsfailed nevertheto file chargesbut the victim filed a civil suit againstthe fraternity less (TallahasseeDemocrat, 1989). Competition and superiority. Interfraternity rivalry fosters in-group nd identification out-grouphostility. Fraternities stressprideof membership rivalries over otherfraternities majorgoals. Interfraternity as and superiority take manyforms,includingcompetitionfor desirablepledges, size of pledge size and appearance fraternity of class, size of membership, house, superiority in intramural sports,highestgrade-point averages,giving the best partie s, gaining the best or most campusleadershiproles, and, of great importance, attractingand displaying â€Å"good looking women. † Rivalry is particularly intenseover members,intramural sports,andwomen (cf. Messner 1989). FRATERNITIES’ COMMODIFICATIONOF WOMEN In claiming that women are treatedby fraternitiesas commodities, we mean that fraternitiesknowingly, and intentionally,use women for their benefit. Fraternitiesuse women as bait for new members, as servers of brothers’needs, and as sexual prey. Women as bait. Fashionablyattractivewomen help a fraternityattract new members. As one fraternity man, a junior,said, â€Å"They are good bait. † Beautiful,sociable women are believed to impressthe rightkind of pledges and give the impressionthatthe fraternity deliverthis type of woman to can of its members. Photographs shapely,attractive coeds areprintedin fraternity and brochures videotapesthataredistributed shownto potentialpledges. and The women pictured are often dressed in bikinis, at the beach, and are One universityofficial says picturedhugging the brothersof the fraternity. such recruitment materials give the message:†Hey,they’reherefor you, you can have whateveryou want,†and, â€Å"we have the best looking women. Join us and you can have them too. † Anothercommented:†Something’swrong when malesjoin an all-male organizationas the best place to meet women. It’s so illogical. Fraternities compete in promisingaccess to beautifulwomen. One fratera senior,commentedthat†theattraction girls [i. e. , a fraternity’s of nity man, success in attractingwomen] is a big status symbol for fraternities. † One Martin, Hummer/ FRATERNITIES AND RAPE 467 universityofficial commented that the use of women as a recruitingtool is that so well entrenchedthat fraternities mightbe willing to forgo it say they cannot afford to unless other fraternitiesdo so as well. One fraternityman said, â€Å"Look, if we don’t have Little Sisters, the fraternitiesthat do will get all the good pledges. Another said, â€Å"We won’t have as good a rush [the period duringwhich new membersare assessed and selected] if we don’t have these women around. † In displaying good-looking, attractive,skimpily dressed, nubile women to potentialmembers,fraternities implicitly,andsometimesexplicitly,promise sexualaccess to women. One fraternity mancommentedthat†part what of being in a fraternityis all about is the sex† and explainedhow his fraternity uses Little Sisters to recruitnew members: We’ll tell the sweetheart termfor Little Sister],†You’re [the fraternity’s We’lltell herto fakea scamandshe’llgo hang you gorgeous; canget him. all over him duringa rushparty,kiss him, and he thinkshe’s done wonderful and wants to join. The girls thinkit’s great too. It’s flatteringfor them. Women as servers. The use of women as servers is exemplified in the LittleSisterprogram. LittleSistersareundergraduate women who arerushed and selected in a mannerparallelto the recruitment fraternitymen. They of are affiliatedwith the fraternityin a formalbut unofficialway and are able, indeed required,to wear the fraternity’s Greek letters. Little Sisters are not nationaloffices and members,however;andfraternity full-fledgedfraternity most universities do not register or regulate them. Each fraternityhas an officer called Little Sister Chairmanwho oversees their organizationand activities. The Little Sisters elect officers among themselves, pay monthly dues to the fraternity, have well-defined roles. Theirdues areused to pay and for the fraternity’s social events, andLittle Sistersareexpected to attendand hostess fraternity partiesand hang aroundthe house to make it a â€Å"nice place to be. One fraternity man, a senior, described Little Sisters this way: â€Å"They are very social girls, willing to join in, be affiliated with the group, devoted to the fraternity. † Anothermember,a sophomore,said: â€Å"Theirsole purpose is social- attendparties,attractnew members,and ‘take care’ of the guys. † Our observations and interviews suggested that women selected by fra- ternitiesas LittleSist ers are physicallyattractive,possess good social skills, and are willing to devote time and energy to the fraternity its members. nd One undergraduate woman gave the following job description for Little Sisters to a campus newspaper: It’s not just making appearancesat all the parties but entails many more responsibilities. You’regoing to be expected to go to all the intramural games 468 GENDER SOCIETY / December 1989 to cheerthe brothers supportandencouragethepledges,andjust be around on, to bringsome extra life to the house. [As a Little Sister] you have to agree to take on a new responsibilityother thanstudyingto maintainyour grades and managingto keep your checkbook frombouncing. You have to make time to be a part of the fraternityand support the brothers in all they do. (The Tomahawk, 1988) The title of Little Sister reflects women’s subordinate status; fraternity men in a parallel role are called Big Brothers. Big Brothers assist a sorority primarily with the physical work of sorority rushes, which, compared to fraternity rushes, are more formal, structured, and intensive. Sorority rushes take place in the daytime and fraternity rushes at night so fraternity men are free to help. According to one fraternity member, Little Sister status is a benefit to women because it gives them a social outlet and â€Å"the protection of the brothers. † The gender-stereotypic conceptions and obligations of these Little Sister and Big Brother statuses indicate that fraternities and sororities promote a gender hierarchy on campus that fosters subordination and dependence in women, thus encouraging sexual exploitation and the belief that it is acceptable. Women as sexual prey. Little Sisters are a sexual utility. Many Little Sisters do not belong to sororitiesand lack peer supportfor refrainingfrom unwanted sexual relations. One fraternityman (whose fraternityhas 65 â€Å"wholesale†in the membersand 85 Little Sisters) told us they hadrecruited access to women that prioryear to â€Å"get lots of new women. â€Å"The structural the Little Sisterprogramprovidesand the absenceof normativesupportsfor refusing fraternitymembers’ sexual advances may make women in this susceptible to coerced sexual encounterswith fraterprogramparticularly nity men. Access to women for sexual gratificationis a presumedbenefit of fraternity membership, promised in recruitment materials and strategies and man said: conversationswith new recruits. One fraternity throughbrothers’ â€Å"We always tell the guys that you get sex all the time, there’salways new girls†¦. AfterI became a Greek,I foundout I could be with females at will. † A universityofficial told us that, based on his observations,†no one [i. e. , Theyjust want fraternity men] on this campuswants to have ‘relationships. ‘ men plan and execute strategiesaimed at to have fun [i. e. , sex]. † Fraternity obtaining sexual gratification, and this occurs at both individual and collective levels. Individualstrategiesincludegetting a woman drunkandspendinga great deal of money on her. As for collective strategies,most of our undergraduate interviewees agreed that fraternity parties often culminatein sex and that this Martin, Hummer / FRATERNITIES AND RAPE 469 outcome is planned. One fraternity man said fraternity partiesoften involve sex andnudityandcan â€Å"turninto orgies. â€Å"Orgiesmay be plannedin advance, such as the Bowery Ball party held by one fraternity. formerfraternity A membersaid of this party: The entireideabehindthis is sex. Bothmenandwomencometo the party Thereare pornographic wearinglittleor nothing. pinupson the walls and usuallypornomovies playingon the TV. The musiccarriessexualovertones†¦. Theyjustget schnockered and, [drunk] in mostcases,theyalsoget laid. When asked about the women who come to such a party,he said: â€Å"Some Little Sistersjust won’t go†¦. The girls who do are looking for a good time, girls who don’t know what it is, things like that. † Otherrespondents deniedthatfraternity partiesareorgies butsaid thatsex is always talkedaboutamongthe brothers they all know†whoeach other and is doing it with. â€Å"One membersaid thatmost of the time, guys have sex with theirgirlfriends†butwith socials, girlfriendsaren’tallowed to come and it’s their [members’] big chance [to have sex with other women]. The use of alcohol to help them get women into bed is a routinestrategyat fraternity parties. CONCLUSIONS In general, our researchindicatedthat the organizationand membership of fraternities contributeheavily to coercive andoften violent sex. Fraternity houses are occupied by same-sex (all men) and same-age ( late teens, early twenties) peers whose maturityand judgment is often less than ideal. Yet houses areprivatedwellings thatare mostlyoff-limitsto, andaway fraternity from scrutinyof, universityand communityrepresentatives, with the result that fraternity house events seldom come to the attention of outsiders. Practices associated with the social constructionof fraternitybrotherhood emphasize a macho conception of men and masculinity,a narrow,stereoof typed conception of women and femininity,and the treatment women as commodities. Otherpractices contributingto coercive sexual relationsand the cover-upof rapesincludeexcessive alcoholuse, competitiveness, norand mative supportfor deviance and secrecy (cf. Bogal-Allbritten Allbritten and 1985; Kanin 1967). Some fraternity norms require practices exacerbateothers. Brotherhood â€Å"sticking together† regardless of right or wrong; thus rape episodes are unlikely to be stoppedor reportedto outsiders,even when witnesses disap- 470 GENDER SOCIETY / December 1989 and prove. The abilityto use alcoholwithoutscrutinyby authorities alcohol’s frequentassociationwithviolence, includingsexualcoercion,facilitatesrape in fraternityhouses. Fraternity normsthatemphasizethe value of maleness and masculinityover femaleness and femininityand that elevate the status of men and lower the statusof women in members’eyes underminepercepand tions andtreatment women as personswho deserveconsideration care of Merton1985). nd (cf. Ehrhart Sandler1985; Androgynousmen and men with a broadrangeof interestsand attributes are lost to fraternitiesthroughtheir recruitment practices. Masculinityof a createattitudes, andstereotypical narrow norms,andpracticesthat type helps men to coerce women sexually, both individuallyand predisposefraternity collectively (Allgeier 1986; Hood 1989; Sanday 1981, 1986). Male athletes on campus may be similarly disposed for the same reasons (Kirshenbaum 1989; Telanderand Sullivan 1989). Researchinto the social contextsin which rapecrimesoccurandthesocial constructions associated with these contexts illumine rape dynamics on campus. Blanchard(1959) found that group rapes almost always have a leaderwho pushesothersintothe crime. He also foundthatthe leader’slatent homosexuality,desire to show off to his peers, or fear of failing to prove himself a man are frequentlyan impetus. Fraternitynorms and practices contributeto the approvalanduse of sexual coercion as an acceptedtactic in relationswith women. Alcohol-inducedcomplianceis normative,whereas, use presumably, of a knife,gun,or threatof bodilyharmwould notbe because the woman who â€Å"drinkstoo much† is viewed as â€Å"causing her own rape† and (cf. Ehrhart Sandler1985). Our research led us to conclude that fraternitynorms and practices influence membersto view the sexual coercionof women, which is a felony crime, as sport,a contest,or a game (cf. Sato 1988). This sportis playednot between men and women but between men and men. Womenare the pawns or prey in the interfraternity rivalry game; they prove that a fraterity is successfulor prestigious. The use of women in thisway encouragesfraternity men to see women as objects and sexual coercion as sport. Today’ssocietal normssupportyoung women’s rightto engage in sex at theirdiscretion,and coercion is unnecessaryin a mutuallydesired encounter. However, nubile to young women say they preferto be â€Å"in a relationship† have sex while men say they preferto â€Å"getlaid†withouta commitment(Muehlenhard young and Linton 1987). These differencesmay reflect, in part,Americanpuritanism and men’s fears of sexual intimacyor perhapsintimacyof any kind. In a fraternitycontext, getting sex without giving emotionally demonstrates â€Å"cool† masculinity. More important,it poses no threatto the bonding and Martin, Hummer / FRATERNITIES AND RAPE 471 brotherhood Farr1988). Drinkinglargequantities loyalty of the fraternity (cf. of alcohol before having sex suggests that â€Å"scoring†ratherthan ntrinsic sexual pleasureis a primaryconcernof fraternity men. Unless fraternities’composition, goals, structures,and practiceschange in fundamental ways, women on campuswill continue to be sexual prey for fraternity men. As all-male enclaves dedicated to opposing faculty and and to cementing in-groupties, f raternitymemberseschew administration women, any hint of homosexuality. Their version of masculinitytransforms and men with womanly characteristics, the out-group. â€Å"Womanly into men† are ostracized;feminine women are used to demonstratemembers’mascurenewedemphasison theirfoundingvalues (Longinoand linity. Encouraging Kart 1973), service orientationand activities (Lemire 1979), or members’ moral development(Marlowe and Auvenshine 1982) will have little effect on fraternities’ treatment women. A case for or againstfraternities of cannot be made by studying individual members. The fraternityqua group and organization is at issue. Located on campus along with many vulnerable women, embedded in a sexist society, and caught up in masculinistgoals, practices, and values, fraternities’violation of women-including forcible rape- should come as no surprise. NOTE 1. Recent bans by some universitieson open-keg partiesat fraternity houses have resulted in heavy drinkingbefore coming to a partyand an increase in drunkennessamong those who attend. This may aggravate,ratherthan improve,the treatmentof women by fraternity men at parties. REFERENCES G. Allgeier, Elizabeth. 1986. â€Å"CoerciveVersusConsensualSexual Interactions. † Stanley Hall Lectureto AmericanPsychologicalAssociationAnnualMeeting,Washington, DC, August. Adams, Aileen and Gail Abarbanel. 1988. SexualAssault on Campus:WhatColleges Can Do. Santa Monica, CA: RapeTreatmentCenter. Blanchard,W. H. 1959. â€Å"The Group Process in Gang Rape. Journal of Social Psychology 49:259-66. Bogal-Allbritten,RosemarieB. and William L. Allbritten. 1985. â€Å"The HiddenVictims:CourtJournal of College StudentPersonnel43:201-4. ship Violence Among College Students. † and Bohrnstedt,George W. 1969. â€Å"Conservatism,Authoritarianism Religiosity of Fraternity Pledges. â€Å"Journal of Coll ege StudentPersonnel 27:36-43. BusinessInsurance Bradford,Michael. 1986. â€Å"TightMarketDries Up Nightlife at University. † (March2): 2, 6. 472 GENDER SOCIETY / December 1989 Burkhart,Barry. 1989. Comments in Seminar on Acquaintance/DateRape Prevention: A NationalVideo Teleconference,February 2. RelationBurkhart, BarryR. andAnnetteL. Stanton. 1985. â€Å"SexualAggressionin Acquaintance ships. † Pp. 43-65 in Violencein IntimateRelationships,edited by G. Russell. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Spectrum. Byington,Diane B. and KarenW. Keeter. 1988. â€Å"AssessingNeeds of SexualAssaultVictimson a UniversityCampus. † 23-31 in StudentServices:Responding Issues and Challenges. to Pp. ChapelHill: Universityof NorthCarolinaPress. Chancer,Lynn S. 1987. â€Å"New Bedford, Massachusetts,March6, 1983-March22, 1984: The ‘Before and After’ of a GroupRape. Gender Society 1:239-60. Julie K. andBerniceR. Sandler. 1985. CampusGangRape:PartyGames? Washington, Ehrhart, DC: Associationof AmericanColleges. Sex Farr,K. A. 1988. â€Å"DominanceBondingThroughthe Good Old Boys SociabilityNetwork. † Roles 18:259-77. Florida Flambeau. 1988. â€Å"Pike MembersIndictedin Rape. â€Å"(May 19):1, 5. of Fox, Elaine,CharlesHodge,andWalterWard. 1987. â€Å"A Comparison AttitudesHeld by Black and White Fraternity Members. † Journal of Negro Education56:521-34. Geis, Gilbert. 1971. â€Å"GroupSexual Assaults. â€Å"MedicalAspects of HumanSexuality5:101-13. Glaser, Barney G. 1978. TheoreticalSensitivity:Advances in the Methodologyof Grounded Theory. Mill Valley,CA: Sociology Press. New YorkTimes,May 16. Hood, Jane. 1989. â€Å"WhyOurSociety Is Rape-Prone. † Hughes, Michael J. and Roger B. Winston, Jr. 1987. â€Å"Effects of FraternityMembershipon Journal of College StudentPersonnel45:405-11. Values. † Interpersonal The Kanin,EugeneJ. 1967. â€Å"Reference GroupsandSex ConductNormViolations. † Sociological Quarterly8:495-504. Kimmel, Michael, ed. 1987. Changing Men: New Directions in Researchon Men and Masculinity. NewburyPark,CA: Sage. Kirshenbaum, Jerry. 1989. â€Å"Special Report,An AmericanDisgrace:A Violent and UnprecedentedLawlessnessHas ArisenAmong College Athletesin all Partsof the Country. Sports Illustrated(February 27): 16-19. and Lemire, David. 1979. â€Å"One Investigationof the StereotypesAssociated with Fraternities Journal of College StudentPersonnel 37:54-57. Sororities. † Now and in the Future. † Journal of College Student Letchworth,G. E. 1969. â€Å"Fraternities Personnel 10:118-22. An Longino, CharlesF. , Jr. ,and Cary S. Kart. 1973. â€Å"The College Fraternity: Assessment of Journal of College StudentPersonnel31:118-25. Theory and Research. † Its Marlowe, Anne F. and Dwight C. Auvenshine. 1982. â€Å"GreekMembership: Impacton the Journalof College StudentPersonnel40:53-57. MoralDevelopmentof College Freshmen. † Martin, PatriciaYancey and Barry A. Turner. 1986. â€Å"Grounded Theory and Organizational Research. † Journal of AppliedBehavioralScience 22:141-57. Ms. Merton,Andrew. 1985. â€Å"OnCompetitionandClass: Returnto Brotherhood. † (September): 60-65, 121-22. Gender Society 3:71-88. Messner,Michael. 1989. â€Å"Masculinitiesand Athletic Careers. † Chronicleof Higher Meyer, T. J. 1986. â€Å"Fight Against Hazing Rituals Rages on Campuses. † Education(March 12):34-36. Miller, Leonard D. 1973. â€Å"Distinctive Characteristicsof FraternityMembers. Journal of College StudentPersonnel31:126-28. Martin, Hummer / FRATERNITIES AND RAPE 473 CharleneL. and MelaneyA. Linton. 1987. â€Å"DateRapeand Sexual Aggressionin Muehlenhard, Journalof CounselingPsychology 34:186Dating Situations:Incidenceand Risk Factors. † 96. Pressley, Sue Anne. 1987. â€Å"FraternityHell Night Still Endures. â€Å"WashingtonPost (August 11): B1. of Rapaport,Karenand BarryR. Burkhart. 1984. â€Å"Personalityand AttitudinalCharacteristics Sexually Coercive College Males. â€Å"Journal of AbnormalPsychology93:216-21. Violence on College Campuses. † Journal of Counselingand Roark,MaryL. 1987. Preventing Development65:367-70. Study. † Sanday,Peggy Reeves. 1981. â€Å"The Socio-CulturalContextof Rape:A Cross-Cultural Journal of Social Issues 37:5-27. . 1986. â€Å"Rape and the Silencing of the Feminine. † Pp. 84-101 in Rape, edited by S. Tomaselliand R. Porter. Oxford:Basil Blackwell. St. PetersburgTimes. 1988. â€Å"A GreekTragedy. † (May 29): IF, 6F. Sato, Ikuya. 1988. â€Å"Play Theory of Delinquency: Toward a General Theory of ‘Action. ‘† SymbolicInteraction11:191-212. Smith, T. 1964. â€Å"Emergenceand Maintenanceof FraternalSolidarity. â€Å"Pacific Sociological Review 7:29-37. TallahasseeDemocrat. 988a. â€Å"FSU Fraternity BrothersCharged† (April 27):1A, 12A. . 1988b. â€Å"FSU InterviewingStudentsAbout Alleged Rape†(April 24):1D. . 1989. â€Å"WomanSues Stetson in Alleged Rape†(March 19):3B. BrothersChargedin Sexual Assault of FSU Coed. † (April TampaTribune. 1988. â€Å"Fraternity 27):6B. Tash, GaryB. 1988. â€Å"Date Rape. â€Å"TheEmeraldof Sigma Pi Fraternity75(4):1-2. Telander,Rick and RobertSullivan. 1989. â€Å"Special Report,You Reap WhatYou Sow. â€Å"Sports Illustrated(February 27):20-34. The Tomahawk. 1988. â€Å"A Look Back at Rush, A Mixture of Hard Work and Fun† (April/ May):3D. A Walsh,Claire. 1989. Commentsin Seminaron Acquaintance/Date Rape Prevention: National Video Teleconference,February 2. Wilder,David H. , Arlyne E. Hoyt, Dennis M. Doren, William E. Hauck,and RobertD. Zettle. 1978. â€Å"TheImpactof Fraternity SororityMembership ValuesandAttitudes. â€Å"Journal and on of College StudentPersonnel 36:445-49. Wilder, David H. , Arlyne E. Hoyt, Beth Shuster Surbeck, Janet C. Wilder, and Patricia Imperatrice Carney. 1986. â€Å"GreekAffiliation and Attitude Change in College Students. † Journal of College StudentPersonnel44:510-19. Patricia Yancey Martinis Daisy ParkerFlory AlumniProfessor,Departmentof Sociology, Florida State University. Her specialties are the sociology of organizations,work, and gender. She has publishedon theprocessingof rape victimsbyformal organizations and has forthcomingarticles on rape crisis centers,feminist organizations,womenin social welfare work,and gender relations in the South. RobertA. Hummeris a graduate student in the Sociology Departmentand Centerfor the Studyof Populationat FloridaState University. He is workingon his master’sthesis regardingthe causes of Hispanic infantmortality. His researchinterestsinclude social stratificationand infant mortalityand the study of rape by college athletes.

Review of Timeline by Michael Crichton

Review of Timeline by Michael Crichton The purpose of history is to explain the presentto say why the world around us is the way it is. History tells us what is important in our world, and how it came to be. Michael Crichton, Timeline Ill admit it right up front: I dont like historical fiction much. When authors are sloppy in their research, I find the inaccuracies distracting enough to ruin what might otherwise be a good story. But even when the representation of the past is largely authentic (and to be fair, there are some extraordinary authors who really know their stuff), fictionalization makes history much less enjoyable for me. What can I say? Im a hopeless history buff. Every minute I spend reading fiction is a minute Id rather spend learning historical fact. Heres another confession: Im not a big fan of Michael Crichton. I do find good science fiction fascinating (a genre that pushes the edges of what if is as mind-expanding for me as a scholarly discipline that asks what really happened). And Crichton isnt a bad writer, but none of his works has ever made me sit up and say, Wow! While his ideas can be intriguing, they all seem to make much better movies. Whether this is because his style lacks the immediacy of film or because I have to spend less time plowing my way through the story I have yet to decide. So, as you can well imagine, I was predisposed to despise Crichtons semi-historical novel Timeline. The Up Side of  Timeline Surprise! I liked it. The premise was appealing, the action was gripping, and the ending was dramatically satisfying. Some of the cliffhangers and segues were very nicely executed. While there wasnt a single character I could identify with or even like very much, I was pleased to see some character development as a result of the adventure.  The good guys grew more likable; the bad guys were really bad. Best of all, the medieval setting was mostly accurate, and well-realized to boot. This alone makes the book a worthwhile read, especially for those who are unfamiliar or only somewhat familiar with the Middle Ages. (Unfortunately, this is a rather large percentage of the population.) Crichton effectively points up some common misconceptions about medieval life, presenting the reader with a vivid picture that is at times much more attractive, and at other times much more frightening and repellent, than that generally presented to us in popular fiction and film. Of course there were errors; I cant imagine an error-free historical novel. (Fourteenth-century people larger than modern folk? Not likely, and we know this from the skeletal remains, not surviving armor.) But for the most part, Crichton really managed to bring the Middle Ages alive. The Down Side of  Timeline I did have some problems with the book. Crichtons usual technique of expanding the cutting-edge technology of today into a believable science-fiction premise fell sadly short. He spent too much effort trying to convince the reader that time travel could be possible, then used a theory that struck me as internally inconsistent. Though there may be an explanation for this apparent flaw, it was never addressed clearly in the book. I suggest you avoid a close examination of the technology and accept it as a given in order to enjoy the story more. Furthermore, the characters who were surprised by the realities of the past were people who should have known better. The general public may think the Middle Ages were uniformly filthy and dull; but encountering examples of good hygiene, splendid interior decor or swift swordplay shouldnt surprise a medievalist. This makes the characters not very good at their jobs or, worse, it presents the erroneous impression that historians dont bother with the details of material culture. As an amateur medievalist, I find this rather annoying. Im sure professional historians would be downright insulted. Still, these are aspects of the book that are easy to overlook once the action is truly underway. So get ready for an exciting ride into history. Update Since this review was written in March of 2000, Timeline was made into a feature-length, theatrical-release movie, directed by Richard Donner and starring Paul Walker, Frances OConnor, Gerard Butler, Billy Connolly and David Thewlis. It is now available on DVD. Ive seen it, and its fun, but it hasnt broken into my list of Top 10 Fun Medieval Films. Michael Crichtons now-classic novel is available in  paperback, in  hardcover, on  audio CD  and in a  Kindle edition  from Amazon. These links are  provided as a convenience to you; neither Melissa Snell nor About is responsible for any purchases you make through these links.

Work Right ( marketing plan) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Work Right ( marketing plan) - Research Paper Example In career counseling we can help students figure out the kind of job they want. In training services, we will introduce courses where student can learn communication skills, computer skills etc. This start up will be for a good cause as it creates employment opportunities for students who have to pay their tuition fee and support their families. Market Research is a strategy that ensures an entrepreneur’s safety before he starts a new venture. It is important because the entrepreneur can weigh the pros and cons of doing business in a particular industry before making an important business decision. Market research comes before finance and legal formalities as it is the starting point for any enterprise. The nature of our service will be that it will consist of a website that will help students of Texas A&M University-Commerce (TAMU-C) to find jobs. This is an important service as it generates employment for fresh university students as well as for people who want to switch their present jobs. It depends on the producer how narrowly or widely he defines his target market and audience and it is this target market or audience that determines the amount, type and price of the producer’s output. My brand is a website for students at TAMU-C so that they can find jobs that match their degrees and skills. The name of my brand is WorkRight and the webpage will be hosted by the university. From the inception of a product till the end, a thorough analysis of the market is done and demand conditions are determined. The young students that WorkRight is targeting have a sophisticated demand for jobs (as they are educated and well-informed) and they keep themselves abreast with the changing employer requirements. I conducted surveys and handed out questionnaires to students at TAMU-C in order to see whether they liked the idea of a website that can help them in getting employed. The primary focus of WorkRight will be the students who do not have a family

Sodium Na+ channel Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Sodium Na+ Channel - Lab Report Example Patients with cardiac insufficiency receive drugs that affect the sodium pump in order to stabilize the heartbeat. Voltage-gated sodium channels. The family consists of at least 9 members and is largely responsible for action potential creation and propagation. The pore-forming alpha subunits are very large(up to 4,000 amino acids) and consist of four homologous repeat domains, comprising six transmembrane segments and transverse the cell membrane 24 times. They coassemble with a beta subunit that spans the membrane. Scorpion toxin has been used for classification of these channels. Diagram of a voltage-sensitive sodium channel ÃŽ ±-subunit. G - glycosylation, P - phosphorylation, S - ion selectivity, I - inactivation, positive (+) charges in S4 are important for transmembrane voltage sensing Frank H. Yu and William A. Catterall (2003) "Overview of the voltage-gated sodium channel family" in Genome Biol. 4(3): 207. ([http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=153452 Full text online]). Class Ia agents depress phase 0 depolarization and reduce Vmax which prolongs the action potential duration by slowing conductance, these agents include quinidine, procainamide, and disopyramide and should be used in conjunction with an AV node blocking agent such as digoxin or a beta-blocker. Class Ib agents have the fast onset and offset kinetics and little or no effect at slower heartbeats. These include lidocaine, mexiletine, tocainide, and phenytoin. Class Ic agents markedly depress the phase 0 depolarization. They are indicated for life-threatening ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation and for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. They are potentially pro-arrhythmic, especially in settings of structural heart disease, as in post-myocardial infarction and contraindicated in such instances.  

Article analysis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Analysis - Article Example arding specific learning needs of students with LD in the classrooms and how they are able to adopt instructions for such particular students in the middle schools .The third question deals with perception teachers who teach mathematics in the middle schools on issues of resources and support for such inclusion by the teachers. The last question deals with perceptions of the mathematics teachers of middle school on issues of preparation received in programs of pre service in inclusion of students in classrooms. The literature background supports the need for the study. This is because there is need to reduce the generalization of teachers who use inclusive classrooms in needs for students with LD. The literature provides an academic analysis of previous research done on the topic on what teachers can do to improve the effectiveness of using the inclusive classrooms and programs for meeting the need of the students with LD. The variables under study were gender of the teachers, educational level, years of experience teaching, years of experience teaching in inclusion settings, number of math courses, number of inclusion- or LD-related workshops, level of support services, Level of administrative support .The variables used in the study were independent variables. They used descriptive statistical procedures to enable in describing the features of the data. It provided basic summaries on the sample used and the measures. This was used to be able to describe what the data was and what the data showed. Some respondents agreed that students with LD should be taught mathematics with general education students however other respondents stated that students with LD should be taught in inclusive classrooms .A percentage of twenty-one percent of teachers agreed that middle schools positively executed the inclusion practices where others were undecided. The responses were varied and indicated that many schools are doubtful the resource room effectively ensures learning of

Religion and Morality

Religion and Morality 1- Religion and Morality. Actually, to know the relationship between religion and morality, we need to define each. First of all, morality has three principal definitions. At the first one, morality is the belief concerning what is moral and what is immoral that means also what is right and what is wrong. In this definition, the descriptive usage, morality is created from society, philosophy, religion and/or conscience. Also, we need to know that the immoral actions here cause clear harm. At the second definition, normative and universal sense, morality refers to an ideal code of belief and conduct which would be preferred by the sane moral person but under specified conditions (Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy, 2002) that means the preference of the person plays an important rule. If the action is preferred to be immoral, therefore, it is immoral and if the action is preferred to be moral, therefore, it is moral but of course under certain circumstances. For example, it is common in some societies that eating with your own hand and grabbing the food is not acceptable, so it is in their society immoral and that could mean that if people see you while eating like that, they will stop unless you really stop doing it any more. At the last definition, morality is equal somehow to ethics in which ethics is the study of morality philosophically and morality deals with values which are studied by ethics. For exam, if you dont steal, therefore, this is moral or ethical action (the same) or we can say you are morally or ethically right. On the other hand, the definition of religion can be a system of human thought which usually includes a set of narratives, symbols, beliefs, and practice that give meaning to the practitioners experiences of life through reference to a higher power, deity, or ultimate truth (Geertz, 1982). Also, we can mention that the definition of religion can differentiate from people to others. For example, the religion for Muslims can mean the best way to live the life, because Allah has sent all his massages which received by the prophets who make us understand what is going on? and what are we? and other things. But for others, religion cannot be that thing which can be related to everything in the life. Also, others could relate the religion to afterlife. Somehow religion control behavior, for example, it is not allowed to listen to songs which may influence someone too much with non useful feelings such as too much of love (negative love), therefore, the person may isolate somehow and his productivity for the society will be finished, but instead of that the religion will suggest the person to listen to songs that stimulate him to do something useful for the society. Many opinions were made and discussed through ancient time and modern time according to many religions and religious scholars about the strong relationship between religion and morality. Some of them said that the religion including Allahs books (the religious books such as Quran, Bible, etc), the Teachings of the prophets, and the classification and details of the scholars who came after prophets are the resources of morality, in other words, we can say that every action are directed by religion and if there are some actions which are new, we can do a Measurement between those in the religious books and the new ones. But the question is why? And the answer comes from Muslims who say that the humankind and life and even everything in the world were/are/are being made by Allah who knows what is suitable for human themselves. For instance, cheating is prohibited in Islam according to what prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) said the one who cheated is not from us. This example is a di rect one. Another action like taking drugs, Muslims here depend on Measurement, therefore, the wrong and the right actions are studied carefully for a suitable time and under specific conditions before we can say it is moral and immoral. And after all, Muslims found that the drugs are as same as wine, which is prohibited and mentioned in Quran, because of its bad effects on humankind, so the drugs are prohibited and it is immoral to take it. (Well even though, sometimes some Muslims dont apply this values and standards). On the other hand, some philosophers said that the religion does not cover all things that are related to morality, in other words, morality here is not directed by religion, but the religion is a part of morality and we can say here that if you do something religiously or not, it is moral either way (Surely under conditions). So they believe that morality can act without religion. They believe that there are things that we can change and create, so we as humans will put the standards for these things, For example, the animals right. The animals right is the idea that the most basic interests of animals should be afforded the same consideration as the similar interests of humans (Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, 2007). Accordingly, the animals should be treated like human, for instance, they may have right to get a passport, so they can pass the borders with a permission and also you can add to the animals right the rights for living, eating,. etc. 2- Conventional and Reflective Moral Standards. Conventional moral standards are those which we get them from society and they did not change, they may not change, and they may be right or wrong. In other words, conventional moral standards are set of moral things in a society which have been thought to every person in that society. Also, we can define it in another way which is a concept of proper behaviour that reflects the values of a particular social or political context, Distinguished from a moral understanding which is authoritative across space and time (Gumbertb, 2008). For example, in some societies the girl should stay virgin till she gets married, regardless the religion rules. So from the beginning, it is known that staying virgin for a girl is a must and that means if she breaks the rule, she will be punished (we are not going to discuss this issue because it is out of topic). After this we can assume that staying virgin is right to do, so it is moral, and steel or remove virginity knowing that the girl have done som ething wrong is wrong to do, so it is immoral. On the other hand, it is not that big case in other societies. So, we can say that the conventional moral standards can be a behavior. Another example is that in some regions people will not mention their moms names because they feel like it is not important and it may be sensitive although they will mention it if it necessary for the police man, for example. Accordingly, people start doing this thing especially when they face a situation or case. In 1985, Kohlberg who created the stages of moral development mentioned that conventional but in reasoning concept in which the self enters society by filling social roles. Individuals are receptive of approval or disapproval from other people as it reflects societys accordance with the perceived role. They try to be a good boy or good girl to live up to these expectations, having learned that there is inherent value in doing so. ( We are not going to discuss it because it has psychological reasons) is really exists and everyone in the society should apply it. For instance, people in GCC countries are so generous, so all next generation are also generous. So we can assume that the generous has developed to be a common behavior in that society and who does not admit it and do it will damage his/ her fame among people, therefore, it is moral to be generous, and it is immoral to be not generous (stingy). Also, we have to mention that we have like a common related world conventional moral standards. Actually, these standards appeared because of the ease of communication between two or more societies or groups of people in such a way the behavior or action that are traditionally being used in societies may transfer to others. For example, when I was searching in Google months ago, I discovered that Spanish people write ( gagagaga ) when they laughing instead of ( hahahahahaha or lol ) which are commonly used, and back then I discovered also that some guys are using it without knowing that. Actually, I was surprised because it is too fast (I mean how can?). So, the media are playing important role in delivering not only behavior but also almost everything. Reflective moral standards can be those in which the person does them because he knows that they may cause damage to another person, in other words, the person will not do things that hurt others because he thinks about others rights. For example, if the teacher of an high school class gives the all student the same marks like B+ the weak student will not complain, but the good student will definitely complain because he has been harmed and also it is not fear, therefore, the teacher should assure that it does not hurt good students, and he should stop doing such an action. So, we can say that if you are going to harm, stop acting, but if you are going to benefit, dont stop because harming is immoral and benefiting is moral. Another example is that a government will not allow oil companies to drop their fragment oil in the sea because it may hurt the fishing process in which fishermen fish fishes from water and in order to not harm the environment. Indeed, many killing cases were happed because of breaking the reflective moral standards, one case in which one high school boy killed another one. The police men were asking him but it was useless. Then they went to that high school to investigate. They discovered that all students who were friends to the killer said that he has been kicked after the school was finished since he entered the school by group of students. Then the investigators assume that the group of students which kicked him helped him to develop hate, and this hate was huge enough to let him kill one of them. After that the police men closed the case without imprison the killer, yet they gave him psychological appointments and tests in the hospital. Actually, Conventional and Reflective moral standards are related so much in such way they are useful for us to find the moral standards. Basically, we mean that the moral standards are gathered from what we can called it society standards plus the standards in which we do not harm anyone. Also, we can add that the somehow the conventional and reflective moral standards are not same. Conventional standards are discuss things that are inherited from the society and related to human behavior, but Reflective standards are related to the relationship between the person and either individual or group of people. Accordingly, we can do everything that is right, yet we do not stop others rights. 3- Professional ethics and Morality Morals and the expression, moral values are generally associated with a personal view of values. Personal morals tend to reflect beliefs relating to sex, drinking, gambling, etc. They can reflect the influence of religion, culture, family and friends (Lichtman, 1995). That means morality is carrying the rule in which we should follow. For example, when we say dont smoke, dont cheat, or dont harm people, we expect anyone to say that it is a rule that we should apply. Also, we can say that the rule like dont cheat because it is wrong for many reasons like..etc or drive slow because it is right for certain reasons, so many people know them as dos and donts or what is right to do and what is wrong to not do. For instance, when we go to a public place like mall, we should not smoke because it is wrong to do in such place. Also, the morality is influenced by a lot of things such as culture, religion, behaviour, traditions etc. So we can find that morality is giving us the rules in which we should apply. On the other hand, Professional ethics are slightly different from Morality. Professional ethics concerns the moral issues that arise because of the specialist knowledge that professionals attain, and how the use of this knowledge should be governed when providing a service to the public (Chadwick, 1998 ). That means how the moral issues, values, and standards are used and it gives the explanations about the cases under certain circumstances. In other words, the right action is right this what morality is carrying but the reasons, situations, and circumstances are discussed in a certain professions ethics. For example, what is right in business may not be right in teaching. Also we can add that the wrong action is decided in the same way. Therefore, we have ethics in each profession. So we can find that professions play an important rule to connect morality and professions. In fact, the morality has an integrative relationship with professional ethics and it is tough to distinguish between them even when we write their definitions. Actually, morality provide us with rules that comes from many resources and then professional ethics take these rules and change, explain, or edit them, accordingly, ethics have many types according to professions. For instance, in our university it is not allowed to cheat according to the AIP (Academic Integrity Policy) and knowing that cheating is prohibited as a moral standard; we can see how the moral standard is acting like professional ethics which is the teaching ethics here. So applying the ethics can lead us to achieve the moral standard in our university. Another example is that a new company want to make a rule list for its workers. They would look at the moral standards, and then they will create or fabricate the rules in such a way it will be suitable for workers, and also it will not harm anyone unless he/she harms the company. In other words, we can find that the company uses the moral values to create its own ethics which is the companys ethics. On the other hand, people use morality as well as ethics in which they have the same meaning or they are equal to each other. They use morality to decide which is good and bad and which is white and black, yet they use ethics to decide the same thing in the same way (commonly use). REFERENCES 1- Professional ethics (2004). The Wikipedia online encyclopaedia. Retrieved October 29, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Professional_ethicsaction=history 2- Morality (2009). The Wikipedia online encyclopaedia. Retrieved October 29, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moralityaction=history 3- Gumbertb (2008). What is Conventional Morality? Answer.com (the worlds leading QA site). Retrieved October 28, 2009, from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_Conventional_Morality 4- Religion ethics Religions (2009). BBC. Retrieved October 29, 2009, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/ 5- Lichman.J, (1985).Whats the difference between ethics and morality? Arent my personal moral values enough to guide my decision making?. What do you stand for?. Retrieved October 27, 2009, from http://www.scribblers-ink.com/professional_ethics.html 6- Stephen M. (2004). Morality and Ethics: An Introduction, dynamic chiropractic, Retrieved October 27, 2009, from http://www.dynamicchiropractic.com/mpacms/dc/article.php?id=46121 7- Kohlbergs stages of moral development, (2006).wikia. Retrieved October 26, 2009, from http://psychology.wikia.com/index.php?title=Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_developmentaction=history 8- Religion vs. Morality, (2009). Events at Stanford . Retrieved October 25, 2009, from http://events.stanford.edu/events/202/20235/ 9- Morality without religion, (2009), Harvard, Retrieved October 24,2009, from http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~mnkylab/publications/recent/HauserSingerMoralRelig05.pdf